Gliricidia Sepium (Madre De Cacao)

Gliricidia sepium 90% are typical. Seedlings establish rapidly, generally reaching a height of 3 m before flowering at 6-8 months of age. Trees can also be established rapidly from cuttings, using stakes of 5-6 months of age, 1.5 m long and with a diameter of 3.5-4.0 cm. If the moisture is adequate, foliage will appear in four weeks. For living fences, use stakes 1.5-2.5 m long with diameters of 5-10 cm, planted 1.5-5.0 m apart to 20 cm depth. For densely planted protein banks, use stakes 50 cm long and six months of age. Various planting patterns can be used e.g. double rows or triangular. Plant populations range from 4,000-10,000 trees/ha. Very high densities are used in small protein banks. The direction of planting should be east to west to maximise sunlight interception. Fertiliser As green manure, 15 t/ha/year of leaf biomass can provide the equivalent of 40 kg/ha/year N to companion crops and pastures. Tolerant of low soil fertility , but will respond to lime on soils with high Al saturation. Compatibility (with other species) Compatible with shade tolerant grasses such as Stenotaphrum secundatum and Paspalum notatum . Companion species Top Generally planted as a living fence, as a protein bank, in hedgerows with crops or pastures in the inter-row, or as scattered individual trees in smallholder forage and open-plantation systems. Pests and diseases Despite being widely grown throughout the tropics, G. sepium has remained relatively free of serious diseases. The lack of diseases is thought to be due to the tendency of the species to be leafless for periods of the year, thus reducing the likelihood of epidemics. Several incidences of insect problems have been noted in exotic environments. For example, aphids, mealy bugs and scale insects occasionally attack trees in Indonesia and the Caribbean. Ability to spread Will not spread under grazing as recruiting seedlings will not compete strongly with established grasses and are easily killed by grazing livestock. Weed potential Aggressive pioneer species following slash and burn agriculture in native range. Limited seed production in exotic locations due to lack of pollinators and unsuitable environments for seed set may limit weed risk. Severe weed in Jamaica, but not reported as a weed elsewhere. Feeding value Nutritive value Top High nutritive value. Crude protein content 18-30% and in vitro digestibility of 60-65%. With the exception of palatability , variability in nutritive quality among provenances has not been assessed. Palatability/acceptability Some palatability problems occur with ruminants depending on prior experience. Naïve animals seem to refuse leaves on the basis of smell, often rejecting them without tasting, suggesting that the problem lies with volatile compounds released from the leaf surface. However, no palatability problems are reported in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Colombia or Guatemala where successive generations of ruminants have been fed gliricidia. Wilting leaves for 12-24 hours before feeding increases intake. Prior experience is the most important attribute of palatability , so that local landraces are most preferred. While naïve animals are used, provenances from Mexico tend to be less palatable compared to those from Costa Rica and Colombia. Toxicity Toxicity well known in Central America, where the leaves or the ground bark, mixed with cooked maize, are used as a rodenticide. This toxicity is thought to be due to the conversion by bacteria of coumarin to dicoumerol during fermentation. May be toxic or inhibit growth of monogastric animals such as rabbits and poultry if fed as a sufficiently high component of the diet. Little evidence of toxic effects with ruminants fed either fresh or wilted leaves. HCN concentrations of up to 4 mg/kg and cyanogens may be present. High levels of nitrates (during the rainy season) are suspected of causing `cattle fall syndrome' in Colombia, but levels declined to negligible in winter. Gliricidia may be a `nitrate accumulator'. Unidentified alkaloids and tannins have also been reported. Evidence of toxicity under practical feeding conditions is limited. The balance of evidence suggests that the plant may be toxic to non-ruminants but conclusive evidence of toxicity to ruminants under normal feeding is lacking. Production potential Dry matter Annual leaf DM production varies from 2-20 t/ha/year, depending on a wide range of factors. In fodder plots, annual yields of 5-16 t/ha of leaf DM, or up to 43 t/ha fresh leaves have been obtained. In Nigeria, gliricidia hedgerows interplanted with 4 rows of Panicum grasses yielded 20 t/ha/year of total DM (grass and gliricidia). Severe leaf fall occurs following flowering in seasonally dry environments. Harvesting of leaf in the early dry season will delay flowering, prevent or limit losses from leaf fall, and maximise regrowth. In West Timor, Indonesia, highest levels of dry season (March-November) forage yields were obtained from harvesting in April and again in June and August. Animal production Top Gliricidia is normally used as a green forage, protein supplement to low-quality tropical forages and by-products for cattle, sheep and goats. It may be used as the sole feed in the dry season. Feeding levels have been 1-3% of body weight for cattle and goats, indicating a supplementation level of 30-100%, although a 20-40% level is more common. Increases in liveweight gains of approximately 25% have been reported for steers grazing gliricidia-grass pastures, compared with steers grazing grass alone. Results from experiments with dairy cows and buffaloes reported similar or slightly increased milk yield and milk fat yield when concentrates were replaced by gliricidia forage up to about 25% of intake. The effects of gliricidia forage on reproducing ruminants have been variable. In one trial, ewes supplemented with gliricidia produced a higher lamb crop, better lamb weights and had reduced ewe weight loss compared with those not fed gliricidia. In an unrelated trial, lambing results were poorer when gliricidia was fed, due to lower feed intake, possibly as a result of insufficient adaptation to the forage . Laying chickens fed sun-cured gliricidia at 4.5% of total diet gave good egg production, egg weight and yolk colour. Yellow yolk colour can be achieved by feeding milled leaves at 2-4% of the ration. Diets containing up to 10% gliricidia can be fed to growing chicks without affecting performance and survival, but higher rates may have anti-nutritive effects. Genetics/breeding There are no breeding programs involving gliricidia. The Oxford Forestry Institute evaluated 28 provenances of gliricidia in multi-location trials. See notes below on promising accessions. There appears to be only small gains achievable from recurrent selection for leaf biomass (8% from a single cycle of selection). Seed production Produces abundant seed. Seeds are shed from pods through explosive dehiscence with seed dispersal distances of up to 40 m. Seed production varies with provenance, ranging from 75 kg/ha for Belen Rivas up to 180 kg/ha for Monterrico, based on 7 seeds/pod and a seed weight of 8,000 seeds/kg. Herbicide effects Unknown. Likely to be similar to Leucaena leucocephala . Strengths Multipurpose tree . Wide-ranging soil and climatic adaptation. Ease of establishment from stem cuttings. High potential DM production. High CP content and nutritive value for ruminants. Limitations Top Familiarisation is required before ruminants will eat readily. Possible toxicity problems if fed to monogastric animals. Lack of cool season adaptation and frost tolerance . Weed potential. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Leguminosae Synonyms A closely related white flowered taxon, Gliricidia maculata H.B.K., is less common although it is frequently confused with G. sepium despite its discontinuous distribution in the Yucatan Peninsula. Other names used in the literature include: Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. andGliricidia sepium forma maculata Urb. Author: J.M. Suttie Common names Gliricidia, mata raton (Spanish) Status Gliricidia is an increasingly used forage crop in cut-and-carry systems in parts of the humid tropics including southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In other areas such as West Africa, India and the Philippines, its use is severely limited by palatability problems; it is little used as forage within its native range in Central America. Despite mixed perceptions of gliricidia as a forage crop, it has been widely promoted by development agencies and researched, due largely to its high productivity and quality. Interest has increased in recent years following the widespread defoliation of Leucaena by psyllid. Gliricidia is one of the few forage trees capable of leaf yields comparable to those of leucaena and will grow on a wider range of soils, tolerating low pH provided that this is not associated with high aluminium saturation.After Leucaena leucocephala, gliricidia is believed to be the most widely cultivated multipurpose tree. It has not been used in commercial livestock production systems. A workshop was held in Costa Rica in 1987 to identify research priorities and prepare a practical manual on Gliricidia Production and Use (NFTA, 1987). Holm et al. (1979) report gliricidia as a severe weed in Jamaica. Non-forage uses: Gliricidia occurs in abundance throughout its native range in Mesoamerica. Its domestication has been in progress for millennia. The Spanish called it 'madre de cacao' to describe its use as a cocoa shade. The toxic properties of its seeds and bark give rise to the generic epithet (Gliricidia = mouse killer) as well as some common names (e.g. mata-raton). Present day uses throughout the native range (firewood, hedges, shade, poles and as an ornamental) are likely extensions of early utilization. Gliricidia sepium has also been used extensively throughout the humid tropics. These landrace populations are remnants of introductions used to shade plantation crops although recently they are being been integrated into farming practices for poles, firewood, hedges, forage, green manure and soil stabilisation. Description Gliricidia sepium is a small to medium-sized, thornless tree which usually attains a height of 10-12 m. Branching is frequently from the base with basal diameters reaching 50-70 cm. The bark is smooth and can vary in colour from whitish grey to deep red-brown. The stem and branches are commonly flecked with small white lenticels. Trees display spreading crowns. Leaves are imparipinnate, usually alternate, subopposite or opposite, to approximately 30 cm long; leaflets 5-20, ovate or elliptic, 2-7 cm long, 1-3 cm wide. Leaflet midrib and rachis are occasionally striped red. Inflorescences appear as clustered racemes on distal parts on new and old wood, 5-15 cm long, flowers borne singly with 20-40 per raceme. Flowers bright pink to lilac, tinged with white, usually with a diffuse pale yellow spot at the base of the standard petal, calyx glabrous, green, often tinged red. Standard petal round and nearly erect, approximately 20 mm long; keel petals 1520 mm long, 4-7 mm wide. Fruit green sometimes tinged reddish-purple when unripe, light yellow-brown when mature, narrow, 10-18 cm long, 2 cm wide, valves twisting in dehiscence; seeds 4-10, yellow-brown to brown, nearly round. Environmental adaptation Despite the widespread present occurrence of gliricidia in cultivation throughout Central America and Mexico, it is likely to be native only in seasonally dry areas. It is largely deciduous during the dry season. In areas where sufficient moisture prevails, however, the tree is evergreen (e.g. Kalimantan, Indonesia; Seibert 1987). Its temperature requirements are not too exacting as shown by the wide variation in mean monthly temperature (20.7-29.2°C) of native sites. It will not, however, tolerate frosts which partly explains its absence above 1,200 m in the native range. Whiteman et al. (1986) in southeast Queensland, found that trees became leafless when night temperatures fell below 15°C. Gliricidia can be managed as a coppice in areas with light frost, by cutting new growth before frosts occur. The 30 sites sampled by Hughes (1987) in his range-wide collection of populations of G. sepium, represent a great diversity of soil types. Most soils were highly eroded, acid (pH 4.5-6.2) originating from volcanic parent material but also included sands, heavy clays and calcareous limestone soils which were slightly alkaline. At exotic locations, such as Peru, Szott et al.(1991) suggested that it was suitable for acid, infertile soils. Furthermore, Whiteman et al. (1986) considered G. sepium to be well adapted to low calcium soils in Australia, although it had have poor survival on Indonesian soils with high aluminium saturation (Dierolf and Yost 1989). A common feature of seasonally dry regions of Central America and Mexico is perennial fires which burn through fallow land and secondary forest. Gliricidia tolerates fires well and trees quickly re-sprout with onset of the rains. The increased frequency of deliberate burning may be responsible for its high occurrence in secondary vegetation and fallows. Cultivation and management Gliricidia sepium is commonly planted vegetatively and a full description of propagation methods is given in Glover (1989). The ease of propagation from stakes is a major advantage, especially as trees managed for leaf production with frequent cutting may not flower and thus set no seed. Gliricidia establishes readily from cuttings or 'quick sticks' and is ideal for shade trees, support trees or 'living fences'. Cuttings should be mature branches >7 cm in diameter which are brownish-green in bark colour. The cutting is normally cut obliquely at both ends, discarding the younger tips, and the base inserted 20-50 cm into the soil depending on the length of the cutting. Cuttings for live fences may be up to 200 cm long whilst those for hedgerows may be 30-50 cm in length. In Indonesia, cuttings are sometimes planted as close as 10 cm apart with alternate cuttings bent sideways at 45° and plaited onto upright ones. This makes a surprisingly strong hedge. In other areas, barbed wire is strained along the line of rooted cuttings and anchored to supported corner posts to make an equally strong fence. The hedges can be periodically pruned to provide fodder, green manure, firewood or stakes for new fences. Frequency of pruning depends on the environmental conditions for growth and the end use of prunings. Hedges around crops need to be pruned regularly to control shading. It can be propagated by seed, usually sown in plastic sachets; the seedlings are usually cut back, as "stumps" prior to planting. The usual precautions to avoid seedlings drying out or being exposed to direct sunlight should be observed. No scarification or pre-treatment of seeds is required prior to germination, and germination rates above 90% are typical. Following germination, trees grow extremely quickly and may attain a height of 3 m before flowering at 6-8 months. Its rapid growth makes it an aggressive pioneer capable of colonising secondary forest and fallow Imperata-dominated grassland often forming dense, pure stands (Anoka et al. 1991). Little is known about herbicides for use with tree legumes although Glyphosate (1 kg a.i./ha) and Simazine (1 kg a.i./ha) were effective and non-phytotoxic pre-emergent herbicides for control of grass and broadleaved weeds in gliricidia. Ella et al. (1989) found that as plant spacing was reduced, yield per plant decreased owing to competition, but total forage yield per unit area increased, as did the leaf:wood ratio. They obtained the highest leaf yields at a planting density of 4 trees/m2, the highest density tested. In hedgerow plantings, however, intra-row spacing seems to have little effect on overall yield, as lower individual tree productivity is compensated for by higher plant density. Atta-Krah and Sumberg (1987) recommended an intra-row spacing of 10 cm, but found only small differences in productivity for spacings ranging from 4 cm to 50 cm. In the same study, plants propagated from stakes were initially much more productive than those grown from seed, but by the fifth harvest (one year after the first) the difference was no longer significant. The optimum frequency of lopping for leaf production depends on the local climate; clearly trees can be lopped more frequently in the wet than in the dry season. In general, total annual biomass yield increases with less frequent cutting, but as this also increases the wood:leaf ratio the effect of cutting interval on leaf yield is less pronounced. For gliricidia grown in the humid tropics and used only for forage, a cutting interval of 6-12 weeks is usually recommended. Seed production Gliricidia is largely outcrossing so it needs to be isolated from other trees of the same or related species to prevent cross-pollination. It should be planted in blocks containing at least 30 trees and isolated by at least 200 m. A border row should be established around the block and seed should not be collected from this row. Flowering begins at the start of the dry season and can continue in some native populations until the end of March in Central America. Altitude was suggested by Hughes (1987) to exert a large influence on the onset of flowering with lower coastal sites flowering well before sites at higher altitudes (i.e. up to 1,200 m). The periodicity of pod ripening is partly dependent upon the climatic conditions and typically takes 45-60 days. Gliricidia grown in wet climates often flowers but sets little if any fruit. To obtain maximum seed yields, trees need to have a good framework to maximize potential floral sites. Cutting gliricidia to 0.5 m after a seed harvest reduced flowering and seed yield in the following 2 years relative to an uncut control (Atta-Krah 1987). On-farm trials in dry-land farming in Bali showed that Gliricidia sepium as a multipurpose shrub producing fodder, cuttings, firewood and seed is best planted in clusters (Nitis, et al., 1997); for seed production it should be planted in alleys (Nitis et al., 1996). In West Africa, Sumberg (1985) reported seed yields of gliricidia up to 89 g per tree per year, equivalent to approximately 37 kg/ha at the spacing used. Seed yield was closely related to the number of set racemes per tree. Seeds are shed from pods through explosive dehiscence with seed dispersal distances of up to 40 meters. Harvest is usually by collection of ripe pods before they dehisce, followed by drying in a site where seed from exploding pods can readily be recovered. Crop use and grazing management Gliricidia is lopped, not grazed. It re-sprouts vigorously after lopping and will tolerate repeated cutting. Moreover, its phenology is affected by cutting: re-sprouts retain their leaves in the dry season in the tropics when older shoots are deciduous. Management by lopping thus greatly enhances the value of gliricidia as a dry season forage. Values reported for gliricidia annual leaf dry matter production generally range from about 2 t/ha/year (Wong and Sharudin, 1986) to 20 t/ha/year (Sriskandarajah 1987). Gliricidia is generally used as a high protein supplement to low quality basal feeds such as grass, straw and other crop residues. Supplementation levels vary but are usually in the range 20-40%. There are numerous reports of increases in weight gain and milk production in both large and small ruminants when gliricidia forage is used as a supplement. Nochebuena and O'Donovan (1986) reported that for Tabasco sheep in Mexico, both intake and dry matter digestibility increased when gliricidia was used as a supplement, up to 30% of the diet, with grass hay. According to Preston and Leng (1987), the growth rate of steers in Colombia fed on King grass supplemented with gliricidia increased curvilinearly with supplementation level, with the highest growth rate at about 30% gliricidia. This result is in agreement with much of the research published to date, that about 30% is the level at which the gliricidia protein is most effectively used, in mixture with low quality basal feeds. According to Lowry (1990), the only real constraint to its feed value for ruminants lies in its palatability. Animals seem to refuse gliricidia leaves on the basis of smell, often rejecting it without tasting it, which suggests that the problem lies with volatile compounds released from the leaf surface. A number of methods are used to increase its acceptability. These include wilting, addition of molasses or salt, and getting the animal used to it by prolonged exposure and/or penning with adapted animals. Wilting gliricidia leaves for 12-24 h before feeding is found to increase intake markedly in many of the areas where gliricidia is used as forage, and is therefore recommended wherever there are palatability problems. The reason for this effect is not known but if, as suggested above, acceptability is limited by volatile compounds given off from the leaves, wilting presumably changes the composition of these volatiles resulting in a more acceptable odour. Differences in management do not fully explain the apparent differences in palatability. For instance, it is reported that in Sri Lanka gliricidia cannot be used as a hedge in goat pastures because of browsing of stems and bark as well as leaves, whereas in other areas, the animals will not even eat the leaves unless they are wilted. In the Philippines, Perino (1979) found that it was seldom browsed by either wild or domestic animals. Other possible reasons for the variation in palatability in different parts of the world include climatic or edaphic effects on leaf chemical composition, differences in behaviour or in rumen flora between animals in different places (whether genetically or environmentally caused), or genetic variation in the gliricidia itself. In Indonesia, fodder shrubs and trees have been used to overcome dry season feed shortages and a three strata forage system (incorporating G. sepium) has been developed in Bali to increase productivity in dry-land farming areas (Nitis et al., 1989). Composition There is varying opinion about the nutritive value of Gliricidia sepium . It is generally agreed that it is a high quality forage, but of low palatability when first introduced to animals. The smell of the leaves has been implicated in this initial reluctance of animals to eat gliricidia but, once adapted, there appear to be no long-term detrimental effects on sheep and cattle. Its toxic effects are well known in its native range in Central America, where the leaves or the ground bark, mixed with cooked maize, are used traditionally as a rodent poison (Standley and Steyermark 1946). Feed Value and Digestibility Crop improvment This genus has not been collected to the same extent as Leucaena. There are considered to be only four species (Polhill and Sousa 1981), of which G. sepium (common name 'gliricidia') is the only species of real agronomic potential; it is only recently that an effort has been made to collect a representative range of its germplasm. Oxford Forestry Institute has collected seeds of many provenances of G. sepium from Latin American countries (Hughes 1987). Tests in 147 sites across the tropics showed that Retalhuleu of Guatemala and Belen Rivas of Nicaragua performed better than other provenances (Simons and Dunsdon 1992). Trials in Nigeria (Cobbina and Atta-Krah 1992), in Australia (Bray et al. 1993) and Indonesia (Sukanten et al.1995) showed that Retalhuleu and Monterio provenances of Guatemala and Belen provenance of Nicaragua grew faster and produced more fodder than the other provenances of G. sepium. Gliricidia is cross-pollinated; seed supply is often a problem as seed set is sporadic and uncertain in environments without a marked dry season. However, since the usual method of propagation is by cuttings, this is a difficulty largely confined to experimental situations. One danger arising from vegetative propagation is the existence of large monogenotypic stands, with no inherent variation to combat new pests and diseases. Such a situation is undesirable, and efforts should be made to ensure diversity by planting from a wide range of clones. Even widespread distribution of a single elite variety is perhaps best avoided. Pests and diseases Although widely grown throughout the tropics, G. sepium has apparently remained free of serious diseases. Recent surveys in Central America, however, noted the common occurrence of serious 'little leaf disease' (thought to be caused by a mycoplasma-like organism) in fence-line and natural populations. Cercosporidium gliricidiasis, chocolate or brown leaf spot, is widely recorded on G. sepium throughout Central and South America, the Caribbean Africa, southeast Asia and the Pacific. Recent surveys confirmed its common occurrence in Honduras and Guatemala. Under humid conditions, it causes defoliation. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, expressed as small, dark, rounded leaf spots, is more common than C. gliricidiasis in Nigeria. Gliricidia sepium was defoliated by Cladosporium sp. in Costa Rica and the pathogen has also been recorded in Jamaica and Venezuela Scab (Sphaceloma sp.), manifested as brown scab-like lesions on petioles and stems, was found for the first time on G. sepium in Honduras during recent surveys. Its relation to other legume scabs is being determined. Surveys have also found leaf scorch/scald and powdery black leaf spot at several sites. Investigations are in progress to determine the causal agents. In some areas in Bali, Indonesia Gliricidia is infested with an aphid (Aphis craccivora) particularly at the onset of the rains, which causes blackening of the leaf surface and in severe cases the death of the leaf primordia and shedding of young leaves (Nitis et al. 1989). Evaluation of 16 provenances of Gliricidia sepium showed that 3 provenances (G14, G17 and N14) were quite resistant to aphid infestation (Nitis et al., 1991). he Best Shampoo for Your Dog is Not Your Shampoo! The dog needs a bath, it's after 6 p.m. on a weekday, and you don't have any dog shampoo on hand. Let's concede that shampoo made for people will clean your dog, but the question is, is it good for your dog? This may seem like a quibbling question, but it can actually have far-reaching consequences. We'll start with the how's of people skin and dog skin. A highly important component of skin is what is called the acid mantle. This is a lightly acidic layer that covers the skin, serving as a barrier to protect the porous topmost layer of the skin, the stratum corneum, from environmental contaminants such as bacteria and viruses. The stratum corneum is responsible for keeping the outer body well hydrated, by absorbing water and not allowing excessive evaporation to occur. When we bathe, using soaps and shampoos, we wash away this layer of acidic oil. This is why most human shampoos and soaps are formulated with moisturizers to replace the protective layer that has been scrubbed away, at least until the skin is able to replenish itself around 12 hours later. If the stratum corneum is left stripped and unprotected, it is open to a host of microorganisms, which may present as dry, flaky skin, irritated, peeling skin, or as a rash of itchy bumps. The acid mantle can also be defined as the relative pH balance of the skin. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with levels less than 6.4 considered high acidity, and levels more than 6.4 considered high alkalinity. The normal range of skin pH levels for humans is 5.2 to 6.2, which means it tends to be on the acidic side, and shampoos and skin products are formulated specifically to maintain this balance. Now consider the relative pH balance for dogs. Depending on breed, gender, climate, and the anatomical size on the dog, the pH levels range from 5.5 to 7.5, tending toward a more alkaline concentration. Therefore, if a shampoo that is formulated for human skin is used on a dog, the dog's acid mantle will be disrupted, creating an environment where bacteria, parasites, and viruses can run rampant. Unknowingly, many pet owners will repeat washings of their dogs because of the smell caused by a proliferation of bacteria, making the problem worse as the skin's acid mantle/pH level becomes more imbalanced. Additionally, if the shampoo makes the skin feel dry, your dog will scratch at its skin, creating abrasions for bacteria to invade. It quickly becomes a vicious cycle. Just as you would look for a shampoo that helps maintain the pH balance of your own scalp, you should also concentrate on finding a shampoo with a pH balance that is specifically balanced for a dog's skin. Dog shampoos should be in the neutral range, around 7. Many shampoo manufacturers will include the pH level on the label, but at the very least, they will clearly state that the shampoo is pH-balanced for dogs. What Else to Look For Do read the labels, making sure that there are no artificial fragrances or colors added to the shampoo. Your dog may be a big strong guy and still have sensitive skin. Look for natural skin moisturizers like vitamin E, aloe vera, honey, and tea tree oil. Fragrances to look for should be natural; chamomile, lavender, eucalyptus, and citrus are some examples of clean, pleasant fragrances, some of which also do double duty as insect repellents. If you can find organic, even better, but don't rely on the front label alone. Again, read the ingredients list. Your dog doesn't need to be washed with shampoo on a regular basis. A good cleaning every few months is all your dog needs (you can give water baths in between), so you can splurge a little on a shampoo with quality ingredients when you weigh the overall time you will be using it. One bottle can last a year, even if you only shampoo your dog once a month. So go for the good stuff, and you won't mind when your dog places his paws on your lap for a friendly hug. Dog From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Dog (disambiguation). Domestic dog Temporal range: 0.033–0Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ Pleistocene – Recent Yellow Labrador Retriever, the most registered breed of 2009 with the AKC Conservation status Domesticated Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Canidae Genus: Canis Species: C. lupus Subspecies: C. l. familiaris[1] Trinomial name Canis lupus familiaris[2] Synonyms Species synonymy[show] The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris)[2][3] is a subspecies of the gray wolf (Canis lupus), a member of the Canidae family of the mammalian order Carnivora. The term "domestic dog" is generally used for both domesticated and feral varieties. The dog was the first domesticated animal[4] and has been the most widely kept working,hunting, and pet animal in human history. The word "dog" may also mean the male of a canine species,[5] as opposed to the word "bitch" for the female of the species. MtDNA evidence shows an evolutionary split between the modern dog's lineage and the modern wolf's lineage around 100,000 years ago but, as of 2013, the oldest fossil specimens genetically linked to the modern dog's lineage date to approximately 33,000–36,000 years ago.[4][6] Dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police andmilitary, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This impact on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.[7][8] In 2001, there were estimated to be 400 million dogs in the world.[9] Most breeds of dogs are at most a few hundred years old, having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles. Through this selective breeding, the dog has developed into hundreds of variedbreeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal.[10] For example, height measured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres (6.0 in) in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth.[11] It is common for most breeHealth Main articles: Dog health and CVBD Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and poisons, some of which can affect humans. To defend against many common diseases, dogs are often vaccinated. There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs, such as poinsettias, begonia and aloe vera.[134] A mixed-breed terrier Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow or hip dysplasia,blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and bloat, which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas,ticks, and mites, as well as hookworm, tapeworm, roundworm, and heartworm. Dogs are highly susceptible to theobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate. Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, includingdiabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.[135] Mortality Main article: Aging in dogs The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.[136][137][138][139] Individual dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed. The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is theDogue de Bordeaux, with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull Terriers, Bloodhounds, andIrish Wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities of 6 to 7 years.[139] The longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles, Japanese Spitz, Border Terriers, and Tibetan Spaniels, have median longevities of 14 to 15 years.[139] The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged.[137][138][139][140] The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is "Bluey", who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death; however, the Bluey record is anecdotal and unverified.[141] On 5 December 2011, Pusuke, the world's oldest living dog recognized by Guinness Book of World Records, died aged 26 years and 9 months.[142] ds to shed this coat. Gen info Name "gliricidia" derives from the Lain 'glis' (dormouse) and caedere (to kill). The Spanish name "mata-raton" refers to the tree's rodenticial properties. As the tree pods hang-dry in the sun, they curl and explode, making a popping cracking sound. A cluster of trees with their pods snapping and popping and falling to the ground, in unison, make a fascinating afternoon of nature's concoction of sound. The tree is common in the southern Tagalog areas, shedding leaves around December and flowering February and March. In some areas, the blooming of its pink flowers is so profuse to deserve a comparison with the cherry blossoms. Botany Kakawati is a smooth, deciduous tree, 3 to 10 meters high. Leaves are 15 to 25 centimeters long with 13 leaflets which are opposite, oblong-ovate, 4 to 6 centimeters long, with a pointed tip and rounded base. Racemes are numerous on leafless branches, containing many flowers. Flowers are pink, 2 centimeters long, with a truncate calyx. The standard is reflexed and pale-yellow in the median part. The pods are narrowly oblong to oblanceolate, 10 to 14 centimeters long, about 2 centimeters wide, containing 6 to 8 seeds. Distribution - Thoroughly naturalized throughout the Philippines in settled areas at low and medium altitudes. - Planted as an ornamental flowering tree for its beautiful pink flowers. - Introduced by the Spaniards from Mexico. Constituents • Phytochemical studies have yielded a formosin (an isoflavan, reportedly with anti-tumor capacity), formononetin, gliricidin-6a-gliricidol-9a, medicarpin (pterocarpan), 7,4'-dihydroxy-3'-methoxyisoflavin, 2'O-methylsepiol, tannin, and a trihydroxyflavone. • Heartwood yielded a stigmastanol glucoside and 3'4-dihydroxy-trans-cinnamic acid octacosylester 2 along with three other known constituents. Properties • Tannins are considered potentially antidiarrheal, antidysenteric, antimutagenic, antioxidant, bactericidal, hepatoprotective, pesticidal and viricidal. Parts utilized Leaves, bark, roots. Uses Folkloric - Dermatitis, skin itching: Apply juice or decoction of leaves, bark or roots on the skin as antipruritic. - Fresh leaves applied to the skin as insect repellent. - As counterirritant: Crush leaves and apply as poultice for rheumatic pains, sprains and closed fractures. - Sap of bark, leaves and roots have been used for wound healing. - Treatment of scabies. - In Guatemala, the bark and leaves are used to treat skin diseases. - In many folkloric regimens of other countries, used for headache, bruises, burns, colds, cough, fever, fatigue, gangrene, gonorrhea, skin itches and sores; as antidote, insecticide, insect repellent. Others - Wood is hard and durable used for small housing needs, posts, implement handles and firewood. In the Tagalog areas, popularly used as a living fence. - Leaves have a fetid smell; crushed, used to rid dogs of fleas and ticks and cattle, of ticks. - The juice from leaves is applied to daily for one week to areas affected by external parasites, Insect repellent: In Latin American, used by farmers to repel insects. Leaves are ground up, mixed with water, and the resulting paste use to bathe animals, and repeated every 7 to 14 days, decreasing the infections from tropical warble fly. Studies • Anti-Pseudomonas: Crude extract of Gliricidium sepium showed potential antipseudomonas drug potential with an in vitro study showing a minimum inhibitory concentration at 1%. • Anti-Scabies: (1) The study concluded that the "kakawati" preparation is as effective as sulfur lotion in the treatment of scabies. (2) In a study of scabies treatment among selected residents of Titay, Zamboanga, results showed a significant difference between pre-treatment and post-treatment scores after one week. However, there was a noted increase of scabies lesions 2 and 4 weeks after. • Antimicrobial: (1) Study of 10 medicinal plants in Colombian folk medicine, including G sepium, was done screening for antimicrobial activity. The ethanol extracts were all active against S aureus except for J secunda. (2) A possible alternative in the treatment of non-nosocomial infections: G. sepium was one of ten medicinal plants screened for antimicrobial activity, all of which were found effective against three or more pathogenic microorganisms, corroborating their use in folkloric medicine. • Saponins: Study yielded three new hederagenin-based acetylated saponins from the fruits of Gliricidia sepium. • Insecticidal / Nematicidal / Antibacterial: Study showed nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita nematode with 60% mortality; mosquito repellent activity against Aedes aegypti with maximum 78% repellency; and antibacterial activity against E. coli, S aureus, Pseudomonas spp, S typhi and Klebsiella spp with best results against E Coli. • Antimicrobial: Study on the antimicrobial activity on the bark of five tree species showed G sepium to have antimicrobial effects against S epidermis, S aureus, P aeruginosa, B pumillus and V cholerae. Preparation for scabies treatment Courtesy of: Dr. Joel Bañez, Section of Dermatology, UERMMH Ingredients: 1. White candlesticks (4) 2. Coconut oil or any cooking oil: 500 cc 3. Kakawati leaves 250 g Instructions: 1. Clean kakawati leaves thoroughly 2. Chop leaves finely 3. Add 250 g (approximately 1 glass) of finely chopped leaves into 2 glasses of coconut oil. 4. Mix while boiling. 5. Gather leaves on the surface of the oil, then drain using a strainer. 6. Get 4 white candles ('esperma") and chop finely. 7. Add to the boiled preparation and mix until all chopped candles are melted. 8. Again, using a strainer, drain and transfer mixture into a clean glass container. Let it cool. Toxicity • Tannins: In South America, in times of scarcity, the forage is fed to livestock. Although goats can consume large quantities of plants with tannins, some animals, like cattle and sheep may not tolerate it due to a salivary protein binding factor that binds the tannins.